Showing posts with label SCIENCE. Show all posts
Showing posts with label SCIENCE. Show all posts

WHAT THE INVENTION GAVE THE WORLD MUSLIMS

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1. Coffee
According to one legend, an Arab, Khalid pass his sheep in the Kaffa region of southern Ethiopia, and noticed that the animals become more energetic when eating certain berries. After collecting them, Khalid brewed coffee first. 
The first information about the export of grains concerned coffee exports from Ethiopia to Yemen. Already in the 15th century it was brought to Mecca and Turkey from where the coffee came to Venice in 1645. In England the grain brought Turks Pasqua Ros in 1650 and opened the first store in London's Lombard Street. The way the word "coffee" is very long: the Arabic "qahwa" turned into a Turkish "kahve". The Italians have adopted it as a "caff?", The English word appeared "coffee", and in Russian - "coffee".

2. Camera
The ancient Greeks believed that the eyes emit light, and people see through this. That is really light enters the eye guessed Ibn al-Haytham (Ibn al-Haitham), Muslim mathematician, astronomer and physicist who lived in the 10th century. Watching the light penetrates through the cracks shutters, he noticed that the smaller the gap was, the better the picture was visible, and invented the first camera obscura ("qamara" in Arabic means "dark or private room"). It is also believed that al-Haytham the first to translate the physics of the discharge into the experimental philosophy of science.
3. Chess
chess played by the ancient Indians, but the game is much different from the one we know today. The modern version of chess appeared in Persia, from which spread westward to Europe in the 10th century in Spain the game was introduced by the Moors.
4. Parachute
A thousand years before the Wright brothers, the idea to create the aircraft came to a head a Muslim poet, astronomer and engineer Abbas Ibn Firnas (Abbas ibn Firnas). In 852, he jumped from the roof of a mosque in a freely fluttering cloak with attached wooden planks. Firnas hoped to soar like a bird, but it did not happen. Cloak slowed his fall, and became something of a first parachute, and scientist escaped with slight shock and minor injuries. At the age of 70 years by improving its staff, Firnas repeated his attempt, jumping from a mountain. He managed to survive in the air for 10 minutes, but in the end he crashed on landing: the fact that your machine is not he attached a tail.
5. Soap and shampoo
daily bath - one of the requirements of Islam. Perhaps that is why the Muslims engaged in improving the recipe of soap. It is known that the similarity of soap was the ancient Egyptians and Romans, but the Arabs guessed mix vegetable oils with sodium hydroxide and aromatics. In England, shampoo appeared in 1759, when a Muslim bathhouse opened in Brighton.
6. Modern chemistry
Yabir Ibn Hayan (Jabir ibn Hayyan) - a scientist who transformed alchemy into chemistry. In the 9th century he discovered the processes that are still used in modern science: distillation, crystallization, melting, refining, oxidation, evaporation and filtration. Haiyang opened sulfuric and nitric acid, and invented distillation apparatus, through which the world appeared alcoholic beverages and flavors used in the manufacture of perfumes.
7. Crankshaft
Crankshaft device which converts rotary motion into linear, invented by a Muslim engineer Al-Jazari (al-Jazari).One of the most important inventions of mechanics, is still one of the main constituent parts of modern machines, originally used for irrigation. From the book engineer clear that he invented or improved valves and valves, has developed the first mechanical clock. Al-Jazari can be considered the father of robotics. A combination lock - also his invention.
8. pointed arch
pointed arch - a characteristic feature of European Gothic cathedrals, but the idea of such arches has been borrowed from Islamic architecture. She was stronger than the semicircular arch used by the Romans and Normans, and, therefore, allows you to build higher and more complex buildings. Europeans also took over Muslims idea of design ribbed arches and round windows, outlets. European castles became Muslim with a copy of their battlements, parapets, barbacans and square towers. For example, the architect of Henry V's castle was a Muslim.
9. Surgical Instruments
Many modern surgical instruments including scalpels, medical saws, forceps, fine scissors, left out what they came up with a Muslim surgeon al-Zahrawi (al-Zahrawi). It was he who discovered that catgut used for internal stitches overlay, absorbed in the body naturally and can be used in the manufacture of medical capsules. In the 13th century, 300 years before William Harvey (William Harvey), the Muslim physician Ibn Nafis (Ibn Nafis) described the process of circulation. Muslim doctors invented anesthetics and a hollow needle for cataract extraction.
10. Windmill
Windmill Arabs invented in the year 634, and was used to grind corn and water supply. In the Arabian desert the only source of power was the wind, blowing months in one direction and that source was used at full capacity.The mill had 6 or 12 wings, covered with a cloth and palm leaves. In Europe, the first windmills appeared only after 500 years.
11. Vaccination
The first idea is not offered vaccinations Jenner and Pasteur, and Muslims. In Europe, this technique came from Turkey in 1724, in Istanbul, where this procedure noticed the wife of the English ambassador. In Turkey, children were vaccinated against smallpox 50 years before the Europeans discovered the vaccine.
12. Pen
pen first invented for the Sultan in the year 953: the governor demanded a pen which would not stain his clothes and hands. Then the ink supply system to the tip of the handle was the same as now.
13. The numbering system
probably numbering system, which is used all over the world, comes from India, but the form of numbers - Arabic, and first appeared in print in the work of the Muslim mathematicians al-Khwarizmi (al-Khwarizmi) and al-Kindi (al- Kindi) in 825. The prototype of the word "algebra" was the title of the book al-Khwarizmi "Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah", with the principles described in it are still used. The results of the Muslim mathematicians, including the theory of algorithms and some trigonometry, came to Europe only after 300 years. Outdoor al-Kindi frequency analysis served as the basis for the development of modern cryptography.
14. Lunch three course
dinner Concept of three courses - soup, followed by eating meat or fish, followed by fruit and nuts - in the 9th century brought with him from Iraq to Cordoba Ali ibn Nafi (Ali ibn Nafi). He also coined the crystal glasses (invented, incidentally, is already above Abbas ibn Firnas).
15. Carpets
Carpets from medieval Muslims were regarded as an integral part of paradise. Weaving technique was quite developed, there are always new colors, and the very art of weavers was not in last place. In Europe, the floors covered with woven rugs, under which, due to a bad harvest was a pile of garbage, bones and more. Not surprisingly, the Arab and Persian carpets quickly took root.
16. Check
if it were not Muslims, checks we would not exist. The word "check" is derived from the Arabic "saqq", which means a written commitment to pay for the goods on delivery. The need for the checks arose from the fact that the money to transport over long distances was very dangerous. Already in the 9th century Muslim businessmen could cash checks drawn on Baghdad banks in China.
17. Land - the ball
is already in the 9th century, many Muslim scholars believed that the Earth is a sphere. Said astronomer Ibn Hazm (Ibn Hazm), the proof is the fact that "the Sun is always vertical to a particular point on the Earth." It was 500 years before Galileo guessed it. The calculations of Muslim astronomers were so accurate that they made ​​a mistake by less than 200 kilometers in determining the length of the equator, suggesting that it is 40,253.4 kilometers.
18 torpedoes and missiles
Although the Chinese invented gunpowder, and of nitrate and used in fireworks, it was the Arabs guessed clean it and apply potassium nitrate for military purposes. Muslims and Crusaders managed to scare his weapon. By the 15th century they invented missile "self-propelled and burn an egg," as they called it, and torpedoes, self-propelled pear-shaped bomb with an arrow on the end of that explode in enemy ships.
19. Gardens
in medieval Europe were the gardens, but it was the Arabs saw the garden as a place for relaxation and meditation. The first royal gardens of this kind appeared in the 11th century Muslim Spain. Homeland carnations and tulips - also Muslim countries.

STRANGE AND ABSURD SCIENTIFIC THEORIES

In the history of science, scientists have put forward many theories strange that only their enumeration would take not one that plump. We have made ​​a rating of the 25 most, in our opinion, absurd: 25.Ekriptichesky script 


Strange and absurd scientific theories

Ekriptichesky scenario, unlike the theory of the "big bang" suggests that our universe is the result of a collision between two or more universes identical to ours. This means that somewhere outside of our universe, there is at least one more. In addition, these pseudo-scientists argue that the distance between the universe and our twin smaller than the diameter of an atom! 24. White holes in space




Strange and absurd scientific theories

Some scientists believe that the existence of black holes in space implies the presence and the so-called white holes. And if black holes in everything disappears in the bottomless pit, then white, apparently, everything falls out, if out of the closet after general cleaning. 23. We are destroying the universe every time we look at the dark energy


Strange and absurd scientific theories

Our universe is 70 percent consists of so-called "dark energy." 
Professor Lawrence Krauss says, every time we look at the dark energy, we kill our universe. This happens in the following way: the more we look, the more unstable the universe becomes, and it shortens its life. Although, in fairness it should be said at the very small percentage. 22. The Universe - a hologram


Strange and absurd scientific theories

Another absurd theory says that we live in the universe-hologram, and this hologram created by none other than the same as our universe. And the sky above us - it's just a wall with a picture of stars and galaxies. 21. Matrix - a reality


Strange and absurd scientific theories

Not so many find people who have not watched the movie "The Matrix". A few very impressionable scientists decided to theorize the idea inherent in this cult film. According to their theory, we all live in a computer program, and that computers have created what we take to be reality. 20. We come from a black hole


Strange and absurd scientific theories

According to this theory, our universe emerged from the black hole. The idea is that matter is sucked into the black hole, the density of the material is increased to such an extent that the black hole is not able to absorb it and "spits" back. 19. Each of our solution - a new universe


Strange and absurd scientific theories

Scientists adhere to the theory omnivÑ‘rs or, in other words, that there are many universes, say: every time you make a decision, we are creating a new reality - a new universe. 18.Teoriya hitting branes


Strange and absurd scientific theories

This theory states that the universe is a kind of brane (from membrane) freely floating in a multidimensional space and constantly hitting the nearby universe. Each blow - a kind of new "big bang", which resulted in the birth of a new universe. 17. Space-time continuum - a substance supertekuchaya


Strange and absurd scientific theories

Physicists Paul Mazur and George Chaplayn suggested that the category of "space-time" has such a quality as "superfluidity." This means that the motion of our universe creates a funnel. These funnels originate new galaxies. This process causes the infinite expansion of the universe. 16. Universes with a lot of black holes dominate


Strange and absurd scientific theories

We already know that getting the matter into a black hole leads to an increase in its density. As a result of this new universe is born. Gradually Universes, generating more and more black holes begin to dominate the multiverse. 15. Anthropic principle


Strange and absurd scientific theories

Each universe has the infinite set of qualities and physical laws. But the basic idea of the anthropic principle as follows: "We see a universe, because only in such a universe could be an observer, a man."14. The soul lives in the heart


Strange and absurd scientific theories

Physician Galen, who lived approximately in the II century BC, believed that the blood - is the fuel that runs the internal organs. And it does not dangle heart, and liver. A heart we need to totally for other purposes: it lives the soul. 13. Hippocratic doctrine of temperament


Strange and absurd scientific theories

Over the centuries, the doctor called the cause of all disease imbalance four "juice" of man. The author of this popular theory for a long time was the legendary ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. The famous "father of medicine" argued that four fluid circulating in the body, blood, bile, phlegm and black bile define the general behavior of man (The Four Temperaments) and its health. 12. Lambs can be grown in a greenhouse


Strange and absurd scientific theories

The ancient Greeks believed that the lamb can literally grow like a plant. Imagine a green stem topped with lamb. This theory is mentioned in his writings, the Roman writer Pliny the Elder. And no matter how absurd the idea was not, among the Greeks could not have done in the 14th century it was picked up again by Europeans. 11. Phrenology


Strange and absurd scientific theories

The founder of this pseudoscience was an Austrian physician and anatomist Franz Joseph Gall. Its basic postulate is the assertion that the shape and size of the human skull can determine the level of his intellect, character traits and inclinations to anything. 10. Life in the Sun


Strange and absurd scientific theories

This we now know that the sun - it is something like a huge nuclear furnace, and in the 18th century, people thought differently. Even William Herschel, the discoverer of the planet Uranus, thought rays - a mountain in the sun, the tops of which are visible through the clouds. 9. Homeopathy


Strange and absurd scientific theories

The concept of treatment on the principle of "like with like" - a virtuoso plan on stretching money from patients. And as soon as the language of the people dare to call it a serious medical teaching? 8. "Fire Element" Phlogiston


Strange and absurd scientific theories

In 1667, a physicist named Johann Joachim Becher proposed to add to the already existing list of chemical elements another - phlogiston. Becher was convinced that this element is contained in all combustible substances and is released during combustion. At the moment, phlogiston if it exists, it is only in textbooks on the history of chemistry. 7. Alchemy


Strange and absurd scientific theories

It is known that people engaged in alchemy, eager to find the Philosopher's Stone, which, in their opinion, could not only turn any metal into gold, but was the key to the creation of "the elixir of life."Need I remind you that this "fifth element" is still not found? 6. Panspermia theory


Strange and absurd scientific theories

Panspermia - belief, the essence of which lies in the fact that life exists everywhere in the universe, and the world was made ​​possible only thanks to the "germ of life", flown together with meteorites, asteroids and other celestial bodies. 5. The theory of alien landfill


Strange and absurd scientific theories

It's very simple: life originates from the landfill is on the ground aliens. 4. Spontaneous generation


Strange and absurd scientific theories

Aristotle believed that the living can arise spontaneously from nonliving - samozarodilsya. As absurd as it may sound, but imagine, scientists are not allowed to attempt to prove this theory until the 20th century. 3. Universe computer


Strange and absurd scientific theories

We have already talked about the theory, inspired by the movie "The Matrix." There is also another, according to which the universe itself - it is a huge computer in which black holes, galaxies, stars function as components of the motherboard. 2. The principle of the mechanical clock in the heart of the action of the Universe


Strange and absurd scientific theories

Our universe is arranged according to the principle of the movement, which is controlled by a supreme being. This is a supreme being uses the laws of physics, so to say, to ensure the proper operation of the mechanism. That is, unlike other theories of the divine, God's role is limited here. He only triggers.Fortunately, this idea has been challenged by quantum theory. 1. Theory zoo


Strange and absurd scientific theories

We only similarity zoo for extraterrestrial civilizations. It is unlikely that aliens who breed of people as a species find themselves before we reach a certain, by their standards, the level of development.

10 OF THE LATEST ADVANCES IN MEDICINE

Modern medicine has not yet responded to the worst calls of the XX century, like cancer, HIV, bacteria and adaptive hybrid viruses, but the horizons of the research offer hope that a cure is achievable.
Today, scientific research intersect with dreams of psychotherapy preparatnoy adjustment of human behavior, reach devices, pharmaceutical chemistry, replacement, and run into the treasury of the gene, which is encoded in DNA molecules recipes incurable ailments.
10 of the latest advances in medicine
In the foreseeable future it will be possible to give injections without needles, drink tablets from racism, relieve headaches at the touch of a button and treat Down syndrome on fetal level. Next, a list of breakthroughs in modern medicine that promise to make our lives, if not better, definitely - quite different.

10 of the latest advances in medicine

Birth control pills for men

Scientists from the Institute of Cancer Dana-Faber in Boston (USA) managed to develop a drug that is able to make a real revolution in the field of non-hormonal contraception for men. Its active ingredient is JQ1 - a chemical compound that selectively slows the testes-specific protein and blocks bromodomen spermogenez. At the same time there is no drug sedative and anxiolytic effect. JQ1 tested on mice and it has shown to be highly effective. In this case, the reproductive ability of the animals to recover quickly after the effect of the drug ended. Experts estimate that about ⅓ pairs in the world prefer to use condoms to avoid birth control pills and other contraceptives for women. It is believed that most cases of unplanned pregnancy is necessary on such unions.
10 of the latest advances in medicine

Cure for bad memories

Scientists from the University of Montreal (Canada) managed to find a drug that reduces a person need to contact a heavy memories. It has not yet been "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind", but a significant step towards adapting the work of human memory. A drug called metyrapone actually there for a long time: in the past it has been used for the treatment of adrenal insufficiency. However, experts have found that the effects of metyrapone on the stress level can be much more useful. The drug reduces the production of cortisol - a hormone that is produced by the adrenal glands in stressful situations. Studies have shown that pharmacological reduction in cortisol levels in these situations reduces the painful memories and creates a positive view of events.
During the tests the participants told stories of the experiment, in which there were neutral and negative elements of the plot. People who before this took metyrapone, four days later could remember the first is much more than the latter, while the study participants who received a placebo instead of the drug, well remembered as neutral, and negative items.
10 of the latest advances in medicine

Neurostimulator against migraines and cluster headaches

Specialists ATI's presented to the public neurostimulator, which helps to relieve cluster headaches and migraines. The device is about the size of almonds through a small incision in the gum is placed in core-palatine ganglion - limited cluster of neurons located in the course of one of the cranial nerves in the nose area. Neurostimulator is activated by an external remote control: If necessary, the patient simply brings it to her cheek. The unit turns on blocks-palatine ganglion basically, and the pain ceases or diminishes.
According to research in Europe, 68% of patients responded well to treatment: they reduce the intensity or frequency of pain, and sometimes, both. The use of a nerve stimulator against cluster headaches in the EU has already begun. In the US, the State Administration of Quality Supervision of food and medicines until allowed to use it only for research purposes.
10 of the latest advances in medicine

Medicine for high blood pressure and racism

According to scientists from the University of Oxford (UK), a drug called propranolol, which doctors prescribe for coronary heart disease, hypertension and other diseases, is also able to reduce the level of racism. In a study conducted by specialists, involved 36 people. Half of them took propranolol, and the other half - placebo tablets. According to the results of a psychological test, which then held the scientists found that the first group showed a significantly lower level of subconscious aggression towards members of other nations and races. The reason - the fact that the active substance propranolol reduces the activity of neurons and, as a side effect, affect the intensity of the subconscious fears, including those associated with foreigners.
Study co-author, Professor, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Oxford, Julian Savulescu said: "These studies confirm that our unconscious attitude to anything can be modeled using the tablets. Such opportunities require careful ethical analysis. In biological research, which seeks to make people better, dark story. And propranolol - it is not a tablet from racism. But given the fact that a huge number of patients already taking medications that have a "moral" side effects, we at least need to understand what they are. "
10 of the latest advances in medicine

Chromosomal therapy

Scientists from the University of Massachusetts (USA) managed to "turn off" an extra copy of chromosome 21, which is responsible for the development of a human Down syndrome. Despite the fact that the tests were conducted in vitro, this study has great practical importance. In the future it will help to develop a chromosomal therapy for unborn babies with trisomy (Down's syndrome, Patau syndrome, Edwards syndrome) or symptomatic treatment for those who are already born.
The study used experts stem cells derived from skin tissue of a patient with Down syndrome. They have put in extra copy of chromosome 21 genetic "switch" - gene XIST. This gene has all mammalian beings female and is responsible for the inactivation of one of the two X chromosomes. When expressing XIST RNA molecule, which covers the surface of the chromosomes, like a blanket, and blocks the expression of its genes. Adjust work XIST scientists managed with antibiotics doxycycline. As a result, problem copy of chromosome 21 has stopped working, and the patient stem cell into a healthy one.
10 of the latest advances in medicine

A new tool for a hangover and alcohol

Researchers from the University of California, Los Angeles (USA) succeeded in isolating a substance that is capable to reduce the negative effects of intoxication, prevent hangovers and reduce cravings to drink. They found digidromiritsetin or DHM, which is obtained from the fruit of the Chinese subspecies candy tree (Hovenia dulcis). In Chinese medicine, extracts of them used against a hangover is already about five centuries.
In the study, researchers introduced the experimental rats dose of alcohol, equivalent to 20 cans of beer, drunk adult. Then the "drunken" rodents rolled onto his back, so they lost orientation in space. The rats that did not receive digidromiritsetin could not restore coordination about 70 minutes, while the animals, which together with alcohol introduced the "antidote" could come down in five minutes. The researchers also noted that DHM markedly reduced in animals craving for alcohol: rats that received it, even after three months of regular admission "alcohol" was chosen instead of drinking sugar water.Skeptics, however, doubt that digidromiritsetin really help people suffering from alcoholism. After all, if the medicine saves from a hangover, dizziness and nausea, the temptation to drink more, not less.
10 of the latest advances in medicine

Determining the level of sugar in the blood tests and injections without needles

Recently developed by the American company Echo Therapeutics device Prelude SkinPrep System and Symphony CGM System allow you to do the injection, take tests, as well as control the level of sugar in the blood of patients with diabetes without injections. Apparatus painlessly remove the horny layer of the skin (the thickness - about 0.01 mm) and increases its permeability to fluids and electrical conductivity. As a result, you can access the interstitial fluid without disturbing the integrity of the skin.
Apparatus for determining the blood sugar level and are equipped with wireless transmitter attached to the patient's skin as a patch. Every minute the device sends data to a monitor that records the changes in the level of sugar in the blood of a patient and sends a visual and audible alarm if the figures are too low or too high. The device is designed primarily for hospitals.
10 of the latest advances in medicine

"Sighting" cure for multiple sclerosis

Scientists from Northwestern University (USA) have been able to find a cure for multiple sclerosis without drugs which depress the immune system as a whole. This discovery was preceded by 30 years of work. Experts managed to "teach" the body of patients with atherosclerosis aiming to suppress autoreactive T cells that attack myelin - a substance that forms the electrically insulating sheath of neurons in the optic nerve, spinal cord and brain. To do this, doctors have introduced their own white blood cells in patients, in which genetically engineered antigens were added billions of myelin. As a result, the level of immune system activity against neuronal membranes decreased by 50-75%, while that does not affect its operation as a whole. Scientists admit that their first experimental group was too small to be able to draw final conclusions. But they hope will soon receive funds for new, larger studies.
10 of the latest advances in medicine

3D-mammography for the early diagnosis of cancer

At Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore (USA) have begun to use the device Hologic, which, along with the usual 2D-images, allows you to make 3D-mammography breast. During one session unit creates 15 shots at an angle of 15 degrees, and then outputs the image slice thickness of 1 mm. This gives physicians the opportunity to see the distortion in the breast tissue is much more than a conventional 2D-mammography and diagnose breast cancer much earlier. "If the disease is possible to quickly detect and begin treatment before the appearance of metastases, the survival rate in the next five years is more than 98% - said the director of the department of radiology at Johns Hopkins Hospital Breast Susan K. Harvey. - Furthermore, at the early stage requires minimal surgery and chemotherapy are often needed. " However, the researchers note that the 3D-mammography center there is a risk of calcification. Preinvasive cancer tumors (so-called "carcinoma in situ", when the tumor does not grow into the underlying tissue, and its cells are killed with the same speed as the fall) represented kalitsifikatami better amenable to diagnosis using 2D-studies.
10 of the latest advances in medicine

A revolutionary drug for the treatment of prostate cancer

In the UK in 2011 appeared the drug, developed by specialists called a true revolution in oncology.Abiraterone A drug called 80% reduces tumor size or stabilizing it even at the final stage of cancer, when there is metastasis and significantly eases pain.
Abiraterone blocks androgen synthesis by inhibiting the enzyme CYP17. This leads to a significant decrease in testosterone levels, which is the main "fuel" for prostate cancer. Medicine, unfortunately, is not universal: patients with an aggressive form of cancer, he can not help. However, it is able to increase the life expectancy of patients with at least two times, and improve its quality.

7 TRUTHS WHICH HAVE BEEN RECENTLY REFUTED

Over time, even the information that we used to take the absolute truth, may undergo significant changes. For example, it was previously thought that the doctors did not necessarily wash their hands before surgery. But science does not stand still, and knowledge is constantly evolving. We collected data, which, although familiar to you at school, but over time have become outdated and have been refuted.

EARLIER: Pluto - a planet

pluto-1
Model Pluto and Eris, recreated NASA
Now: Pluto is not a planet.
Until some time we knew that from the late 1800s, there is the ninth planet after Uranus - Pluto. In 1906, Percival Lowell, founder of the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, has launched a research project to detect the mysterious "Planet X". However, in 1930, 23-year-old novice researcher accidentally discovered this planet. Clyde Tombaugh was instructed to meticulously follow moving objects, systematically comparing the pictures of a starry sky. As a result, the Clyde presented his discovery to the Harvard College Observatory.
The name of the new planet gave 11-year-old Englishwoman (in honor of the Roman god of the underworld). So the planet Pluto was included in the composition of our solar system.
But in 2003, according to NASA astronomer found beyond Pluto's much larger object, which gave the name of Eris.
This event has caused many disputes among astronomers, the chief of which was - what makes a planet a planet? As a result, based on the size and location of the bodies, it was decided that neither Pluto or Eris actually planets are not.
Can you imagine what was disappointing mladsheklassnikov geography lessons.
Even when astronomer Mike Brown, author of "How I killed Pluto and why it was inevitable," opened the debate on this issue, an astrophysicist Nick Tyson Degrasss fully supported him, "If you compare the weight Chevrolet Impala and Neptune, how much more Pluto Compared with these? Pluto would be similar to a toy car. "

EARLIER: Diamond - the hardest natural material


rough-diamond
* Pyramidal diamond embedded in the working surface hardness Vickers.
Now: Ultra-hard cubic boron nitride - the hardest substance in the world.
In a world known substance harder than diamond 2 - wurtzite boron nitride and lonsdalite. First stronger diamond by 18%, the second - 58%! Unfortunately, both the substance rarely occur in nature. To be honest, the study has not yet proved their calculations in practice. Therefore, this discovery can be considered a true theoretically.
However, there is another contender for the title of the most solid. Simply put, scientists condensed boron nitride particles to create an "ultra solid cubic boron nitride." To do this, they simply divided the particle into its constituent elements (this procedure can be compared with the cleaning onion, truncation of rose petals or unfolding nesting dolls).
As a result, women around the world have begun to hunt for wedding rings made out of heavy-duty material, as such rings are really scrapie your union "forever."

EARLIER: Pyramid in Egypt was built slaves Jews


pyramids-at-giza-khufu-and-khafra
Pyramids of Giza - Khufu and Khafre
Now:  Egyptian pyramids were built wage workers.
In the movie "Prince of Egypt" we could see slaves as builders of these stone structures. This is also evidenced by the texts of the Bible, but the specific descriptions in it was found. This is quite a common myth rumor originates from the time of the visit of the former Prime Minister of Israel in Egypt MenahemaBegina in 1977.
However, a professor at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem Amichai Mazar claims that no Jew was not involved in the construction of the pyramids because Jews did not exist at the time of their construction.
In fact, recent archaeological finds show that it was the Egyptians built the pyramids. Workers hired from poor families living in the south and north of the state. They are not held in high esteem; they were buried without honors, not caring about the observance of all rituals.

SOON: Our evolutionary relationship with other primates lost forever


ida-missing-link-fossil
Ida - fossil, considered "the missing link of evolution"
Now:  Find "Ida".
It is believed that "Ida" - an important link (previously lost) in the doctrine of evolution from ape to man.In 2003, paleontologist YornHurum and his team in Germany found these ancient remains, incidentally, is well preserved, dating back as many as 47 million. Years. Ida, namely the so-called this ancient primate became a transitional link in the evolutionary rift between higher primates (monkeys and apes) and humans, as well as lemurs - our distant relatives.
Ida received the scientific name Darwiniusmasillae (literally "creature of Darwin Messel). Her skeleton resembles the skeleton of a lemur, and it has some features in common with primates: separate thumb, no claws, short limbs. The discovery of this animal fills a big gap in evolutionary history.

EARLIER: Fold a piece of paper more than seven times - mathematically impossible


jane-waterbury
Britney Gellivan managed to lay down a roll like this more than seven times
Now: the record is - more than 11 times.
This rumor is fairly widespread in the fields of science and art. However, a schoolgirl from California proved that there is nothing impossible. Britney Gellivan and a few volunteers have gained a huge 85-dollar roll of toilet paper and all shocked by the fact that it lay down as much as 11 times. Britney realized that all those before it tried to do this, alternated the direction of the fold of the paper. The girl even brought a mathematical equation, which made taking into account the thickness and width of a particular paper.
Britney Gellivan made a presentation at the National Convention of Teachers of Mathematics in 2006, and in 2007 received a degree in environmental sciences at the University of California at Berkeley. Now it can be seen in the popular television show "MythBusters."

EARLIER: The Great Wall - the only manmade structure visible from space


great-wall-of-china-from-space
Photos central part of Inner Mongolia, about 320 miles from Beijing, made on 24 November 2004 from the International Space Station. As you can see, the wall is almost indistinguishable
Now: Many structures erected by people can be seen from space.
Formally, it never was true - just this information throughout many mladsheklassniki include in their reports and presentations. In fact, rumors about the possibility to see many sights not only of space, but even there the moon in 1938.
Despite this, in 2003, the Chinese astronaut is still this myth dispelled. According to NASA Yang Liwei admitted that he was not able to see the Great Wall from space. After this statement began to appear numerous pictures, and all unanimously agreed that under certain conditions (presence of snow cover, camera with high magnification) is still possible to see the outlines of a glimpse of the building. And you can see the lights of the big cities, main roads, bridges, airports, dams and reservoirs.
As for the visibility of terrestrial objects from the Moon - it is only speculation.
"The only thing that can be seen from the moon - it's a big blue sphere covered with clouds and yellow spots deserts, and sometimes green vegetation," - says the astronaut crew of Apollo 12 Alan Bean. - "There is no man-made objects in the field of vision at a distance."
Maybe some, talking about distinct objects from space, mean visibility of buildings from satellites orbiting the Earth - but it is not outer space.

EARLIER: There are five Scientific classification Kingdom species


fungi
Mushrooms (lat.Fungi) - one of the kingdoms of the living world
Now: There is an opinion that such kingdoms at least eight.
Perhaps the lessons of biology you remember the five major kingdoms of living things: animals, plants, bacteria (or Monera), fungi and protozoa. One way or another, but the classification has since been expanded.
The more species of living beings is opened, the harder it becomes to assign them to a particular realm.In addition to the above-mentioned kingdoms have already added to the kingdom "Archaea", previously combined in the general realm of bacteria.
At first glance, archaea (ancient bacteria) look like other single-celled organisms called eubacteria (true bacteria), but it is only at first glance. There are also more complex systems, which divide into two eubacteria kingdom or some chrome.
In the United States adhere to the classification of the 6 kingdoms: plants, animals, unicellular fungi, archaea and eubacteria.

17 MAJOR SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES OF 2013

In 2013, there was a lot of important scientific discoveries - from the intergalactic neutrinos and invisible brain to create a miniature "organelles". Before you - the 17 most important scientific discoveries of the past year just.

17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.



 


1. "Voyager 1" has gone beyond the Solar System Out of the solar system can not be considered an ordinary achievement. For 36 years NASA spacecraft "Voyager 1" increases the distance between himself and the Sun, moving away from him at a speed of 17 km / s. Scientists knew that sooner or later, "Voyager 1" reaches the periphery of the heliosphere, which surrounds the solar system and defines its boundaries, but when he crosses this barrier, it is known was not.After several months of uncertainty by NASA in September this year, has made ​​an official statement: "Voyager 1" was the first object created by man, which came out in interstellar space. " So, we're already there. 2. Short palindromic repeats open (CRISPR) in the DNA ofbacteria have their own version of the adaptive immune system, but as a CRISPR system is not aimed at the hostile your immune system protein antigens. Instead CRISPR grasps and removes specific DNA sequences using appropriate RNA strands. System CRISPR easily manipulated in January scientists first reported deletion, addition, activation and suppression of a target gene in cells of humans, mice, rat, zebrafish, bacteria, fruit flies , yeast, nematodes and crops, showing tremendous opportunities for the application of the opening. For those seeking new tools for scientists often the most important is the versatility and ease of use. CRISPR convenient to both sides, and many scientists believe that the discovery has the potential to revolutionize molecular biology. 3. The Milky Way is full of habitable worlds in November astronomers said that 22% of stars like our sun of the Milky Way are potentially habitable planets around their orbits. Dimensions distant planets comparable to the Earth. This remarkable finding suggests that our galaxy may be more than two billion habitable planets, and the nearest such a planet may be only 12 light years from Earth. Perhaps there - a twin of the Earth? It is still unknown, but thanks to the telescope "Kepler" we have all the data to find out, it remains only to analyze them. Perhaps his second home we have already found. 4.Interface brain-to-brain in February, researchers announced that they have successfully established a connection between the brain of two rats: signals from the brain of one rat rat second helped to solve complex problems in real time, with the animals were thousands of miles from each other. A few months After such a link has been established between the human and rat brain, but only a month later, scientists published the results of the first successful experiment in communication between the brains of two people. The era of unification of minds does not seem far off. 5. There is life on the edge of the world in the lake Uillans is life. For millions of years the tiny lake of liquid water hidden in the depths of hundreds of meters under the Ross Ice Shelf in Antarctica, isolated from the outside world, and scientists, and to explore its depths there was no way. This year, a team of researchers led by John Prisca glaciologist at the University of Montana managed drill a tunnel to the lake Uillans and find life - so Prisca and his colleagues were the first people in history who found living organisms in the lake on the edge of the world. 6. Doctors cured of HIV child born sick doctors in March announced a grand event in medicine - child cured of HIV. Dr. Deborah Persaud presented a report on this at the 20th Annual Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. 7. Recently discovered the skull can reduce the evolutionary tree of humanity beautifully preserved skull age of 1.8 million years old, found in Dmanisi, Georgia, may be evidence that the evolutionary tree of the genus Homo creatures may have far fewer branches than previously thought. In a report published in October, said that a team of researchers led by Georgian anthropologist David Lordkipanidze found first in the history perfectly preserved hominid skull. If you compare the skull with four other skulls found nearby, it becomes clear that the earliest known members of the branch Homo (Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis and Homo erectus), perhaps nothing from each other do not differ. It is likely that they were all part of the same growing branches, eventually led to modern humans. 8. Neuroscientists have made ​​invisible brain New technologies allow scientists to make fully transparent medulla. It has become one of the most important achievements in the field of neuroanatomy in recent decades, and is easy to understand why. 9. Rover «Curiosity» confirmed that Mars once might have life in March, NASA scientists have published perhaps the most compelling evidence to date that the Red Planet could be home to life. Earlier this year «Curiosity» drilled a few samples of sedimentary rocks near the old riverbed in the crater Gale. In this area, there is a whole series of lines, similar to the dry river bed that can testify in favor of the fact that the planet once had water. Using the on-board computers rover, NASA scientists have analyzed these samples for some of the critical elements necessary for life, including sulfur, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and carbon. Currently, the rover moves to its basic scientific goal - Aeolis mount (it mountain Sharpe) five kilometers high, situated in the center of the crater Gale. There he will try to find other proofs of the existence of life. 10. Death of anonymity genome Few things in the world can be more personal than your DNA. For this reason, in projects such as a database of the human genome, has always respected the privacy of participants. Studying the individual characteristics of individuals donated their DNA samples, the researchers maintain the standard "genomic anonymity." Those days are now officially over. In January, researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have shown that the similarity of volunteers who donate personal data - its genome - can only be determined at the public availability of information. Lead researcher on the project Yaniv Erlich told how this method works, explained the implications of his discovery, and why it can change our attitude to genetic data. 11. Researchers have discovered neutrinos from another galaxy Physics Observatory "Ice Cube" at the South Pole this year drilled in the Antarctic glacier hole depth of 2.5 km and took it 28 neutrinos - those mysterious and extremely powerful subatomic particles that pass right through solid matter. These particles may have been born outside of our solar system, it is possible that outside of our galaxy. Perhaps for this discovery, researchers will receive the Nobel Prize. 12. 400,000-year-old DNA changes the known history of mankind DNA extracted from the well-preserved 400,000-year-old femur, complicates our understanding of human evolution. First anatomists thought that the bones belonged Neanderthal, but further study led to the assumption that the bone belonged to even his predecessor, as the representative of a separate branch of hominids, known under the name of Denisovan. Conclusions leading anthropologists are redefining the last few hundred thousand years of human evolution. It is possible that there were many extinct human populations that may interbreed and thus exchanged DNA. 13. Dawn mini-organs grown in the laboratory miniature bodies give scientists new ways to study diseases and how they develop in human tissues. So-called "organelles" created from pluripotent stem cells. The result is a variety of tissues, which can be grown, for example, "minipochki" or tiny human brain no bigger than an apple seed. 14. Long-lost continent discovered at the bottom of the Indian Ocean For centuries, Maurice was hidden from the eyes: a small continent once stood between India and Madagascar, but a few million years ago, disappeared under the ocean waves due to tectonic faults. This year, thanks to the volcanic activity remains of a long-lost continent reached the Earth's surface. After millions of years of geological research and incredible Maurice seems to have been found. 15. Giant virus «Pandoravirus» can make us rethink our ideas about life in July, scientists announced the discovery of a pair of viruses, unclassifiable. These viruses, called «Pandoravirus», a genetically complex of all other viruses known to science, and can ignite long-standing debate about the classification of life itself. 16. NASA discovered "previously unknown surprise surrounding the Earth" NASA Satellites «Van Allen probes» - a pair of robotic spacecraft, launched in 2012, the year of the study couples Earth's radiation belts. In February this year, the satellites have found something interesting - an ephemeral third ring of radiation surrounding the planet. 17. Human cloning becomes a reality in May, researchers have received stem cells from cloned human embryos. This new controversial technique could lead to new treatments for diseases such as Parkinson's disease or diabetes - as well as a step to bring us closer to human reproductive cloning.

17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.








17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.









17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.






17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.






17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.







17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.





17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.






17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.





17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.









17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.







17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.







17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.







17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.





17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.







17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.





17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.





17 major scientific discoveries of 2013.